Jump to content

List of emperors of the Ming dynasty

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Emperor of the Great Ming
大明皇帝
Imperial
Portrait of the Jiajing Emperor (r. 1521–1567) wearing a robe adorned with twelve dragons. The sun and moon drawn on the shoulders form the character ming ('bright'), the name of the dynasty.[1] National Palace Museum, Taipei.
Details
StyleYour Majesty, His Majesty the Emperor
First monarch
Last monarch
Formation
  • 1368
Abolition
  • 1644 (Ming dynasty)
  • 1662 (Southern Ming)
Residence
AppointerHereditary

The emperors of the Ming dynasty, who were all members of the House of Zhu, ruled over China proper from 1368 to 1644 during the late imperial era of China (221 BC – 1912). Members of the Ming dynasty continued to rule a series of rump states in southern China, commonly known as the Southern Ming, until 1662; the Ming dynasty followed the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and preceded the Manchu-led Qing dynasty.

The Ming dynasty was founded by the peasant rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang, known as the Hongwu Emperor. The longest-reigning emperor of the dynasty was the Wanli Emperor (r. 1572–1620), who ruled for 48 years; the shortest was his successor, the Taichang Emperor, who ruled for only 29 days in 1620. The youngest ruler at the time of his ascension was Emperor Yingzong, who was only 9 years old, while the oldest ruler at the time of his death was the Hongwu Emperor, who died at the age of 71.[2]

The emperor of the Ming dynasty, following a practice established in the Zhou dynasty, was known as the "Son of Heaven" (天子; Tianzi).[3] He was seen as the intermediary between humans and heaven and was responsible for conducting numerous rituals to honor the supreme deities who safeguarded the empire, including the heavens, the earth, and the imperial ancestors.[4] Additionally, he participated in various ceremonies to commemorate significant events in both his own life and that of the empire, such as the promotion of an heir, a concubine, the granting of fiefs, the reception of envoys, and the metropolitan examinations. During his daily audiences, his subjects were expected to demonstrate their submission by prostrating themselves before him.[5] However, in reality, the majority of decisions were made by the Grand Secretariat and the ministries.[6] When he traveled, he was accompanied by an impressive entourage and protected by his imperial guard.[7]

Of sixteen Ming emperors, fourteen resided in the Forbidden City, a 72 ha (180-acre) complex of palaces and buildings in Beijing. Prior to 1420, the emperors' residence was located in a similar complex in Nanjing.[8]

Background

[edit]
  • The Hongwu Emperor (top left), who proclaimed the Ming dynasty on 23 January 1368, and his son, the Yongle Emperor (top right), whose reign is often seen as the "second founding" of the Ming dynasty since he reversed many of his father's policies.[9]
  • The Wanli Emperor (bottom left), the longest-reigning Ming emperor,[2][10] and his son, the Taichang Emperor (bottom right), whose reign was the shortest in the history of the Ming dynasty, in contrast to his father's longest reign.[2]

The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang (the Hongwu Emperor), who was one of the leaders of the Red Turban peasant rebellion. Despite humble beginnings, he successfully built his own state, defeated other rebel leaders, and forced the last Yuan emperor to flee China proper. On Chinese New Year in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang declared the establishment of a new imperial dynasty titled Great Ming (大明; Da Ming) and declared himself its first emperor.[11]

The emperors of the Ming dynasty inherited the throne according to the principle of primogeniture. According to the Hongwu Emperor's Ancestral Instructions, the successor to the throne was always the eldest son of the emperor and empress, or his heir, followed by younger sons of the empress. However, sons of concubines were excluded from the line of succession. It was a strict rule that conservative officials strongly insisted on following. Even the Wanli Emperor, who for two decades tried to appoint his third son, Zhu Changxun, as crown prince, was eventually forced to step down and appoint his eldest son, the future Taichang Emperor.[12] The only successful violator of the succession rules was the Yongle Emperor, the third emperor of the dynasty. He gained power in a three-year civil war against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor.[13]

The Wanli Emperor on his state barge as depicted in the Return Clearing (National Palace Museum, Taiwan). Imperial journeys were used to impress the population with the emperor's power and wealth, and he travelled in luxury with a vast entourage. Journeys by water provided a useful opportunity for inspecting the upkeep of the all-important water-transport system and the maintenance of irrigation works and dykes.[14]

The emperor, or huangdi, was the supreme head of state, a tradition that dated back to the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and was continued by the Ming dynasty.[15] In theory, he held ultimate authority over all officials and generals, and the entire country was expected to obey his decrees. However, this power came at a cost, as the Hongwu Emperor tightly controlled his power through numerous purges.[16] As the dynasty progressed, the successors of the Hongwu Emperor lacked his decisiveness and were constrained by traditional limitations.[17] The emperor was not expected to make independent decisions regarding the direction of the country.[18] Instead, memoranda and demands were presented to them with proposed solutions. The emperor's role was to either confirm the submitted proposals or negotiate an alternative solution with the submitters.[18] Similarly, the emperors appointed officials and generals based on recommendations from the Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of War. In the case of high dignitaries, the ruler was given a choice between two to three candidates.[18] Major issues were typically discussed at official audiences or informal meetings, and it was necessary to reach a broad consensus among court dignitaries before making any significant decisions.[17]

During the reigns of the Hongwu Emperor and his successors, China generally experienced a period of economic growth and political stability.[19] However, in the 17th century, a combination of climate changes and poor economic policies led to widespread famines and epidemics. As a result, the government's authority weakened, and numerous uprisings erupted. In 1644, the rebel army successfully captured Beijing, leading to the suicide of the last Ming emperor, the Chongzhen Emperor (r. 1627–1644).[20] The leader of the uprising, Li Zicheng, declared himself the emperor of the new Shun dynasty. To defeat the rebels, Wu Sangui, the last Ming general in the northeast, invited the Manchu-led Eight Banners of the Qing dynasty to enter the Central Plains. The Manchus then occupied northern China that same year.[21]

Despite losing control of the north, members of the Ming imperial family continued to rule over southern China. However, they were gradually pushed out by the Manchus until the last Ming emperor, Zhu Youlang, was executed in 1662 in Burma. Later historians referred to the emperors of the Ming regimes in southern China as the rulers of the Southern Ming dynasty.[22]

List of emperors

[edit]

The emperor's personal name (名字; Mingzi) was tabooed after his ascension to the throne. He was referred to and addressed with titles of varying degrees of formality—Your Majesty (陛下; Bixia), His Majesty the Emperor (皇上 Huangshang, or simply Shang).[23] After death, the emperor received an honorary posthumous name (謚號; Shihao), usually consisting of nineteen written characters for emperors of the Ming dynasty; however, the founder of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, was honored with a name of twenty-three written characters. Another name given posthumously was the temple name (廟號; Miaohao), and along with the posthumous name, they were used for worship in the Imperial Ancestral Temple.[24] Due to the repetition of the same temple and posthumous names for emperors of different dynasties, the dynastic name is used as a differentiator when necessary. For example, the Hongwu Emperor is frequently referred to as "Ming Taizu".[25]

Era name (年號; Nianhao), or "reign title", was chosen at the beginning of the emperor's reign to reflect the political, economic, and/or social landscapes at the time.[25] During the Ming dynasty, except for Emperor Yingzong, the emperors only declared one era name during their reign, whereas emperors of previous dynasties usually had multiple era names. As a result, the emperors of the Ming dynasty were commonly referred to by their single era names.[26]

  shading, with (regency) in the "Reign and era(s)" column, denotes regents between crowned rulers.

Timeline

[edit]
Zhu YoulangZhu YuyueZhu YihaiZhu ChangfangZhu YujianZhu YousongChongzhen EmperorTianqi EmperorTaichang EmperorWanli EmperorLongqing EmperorJiajing EmperorZhengde EmperorHongzhi EmperorChenghua EmperorEmperor Yingzong of MingJingtai EmperorEmperor Yingzong of MingXuande EmperorHongxi EmperorYongle EmperorJianwen EmperorHongwu EmperorSouthern MingMing dynasty

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ In the Ming dynasty, a few days usually separate each emperor's reign. When a Ming emperor died there was a period of mourning, after which their successor was crowned as soon a "propitious" day was chosen. Emperors reigned in their predecessor's era name until a new era name was declared at the beginning of the next year. Thus, the Hongwu (洪武) era did not technically end with the Hongwu Emperor's death on 24 June 1398, but ended on 5 February 1399 when the subsequent Jianwen Emperor began a new era on 6 February 1399.[27]
  2. ^ The temple name Huizong was given to the Jianwen Emperor long after his reign by Zhu Yousong, the Prince of Fu, in 1644.[29]
  3. ^ The posthumous name Emperor Gongmin Hui was given to the Jianwen Emperor long after his reign by the Qianlong Emperor in 1736.[29]
  4. ^ Following his death, the Yongle Emperor was given the temple name Taizong (太宗) by his successor the Hongxi Emperor, but this was changed on 3 October 1538 to Chengzu (成祖) by the Jiajing Emperor. The latter has been used since its bestowment[29]
  5. ^ After the Jianwen Emperor died in a palace fire, the Yongle Emperor ascended to the throne. In an attempt to diminish the legacy of his predecessor, he chose not to give him a temple name.[31] Additionally, he retroactively abolished the Jianwen era and extended the Hongwu era in its place.[32]
  6. ^ a b Emperor Yingzong was captured by the Northern Yuan dynasty in 1449, and his brother, the Jingtai Emperor, ascended to the throne. After the Jingtai Emperor was deposed in a palace coup in 1457, Emperor Yingzong returned to the throne and declared a new era, Tianshun.[36]
  7. ^ a b The two characters are both pronounced Lu but with different tones; to distinguish them in Roman script, one is usually kept as Lu and the other spelled differently. Luh is from Cambridge History of China; Lou is from A.C. Moule's Rulers of China (1957). When one irregular spelling is used, the other is kept as regular (Lu). The two systems are distinct and not used simultaneously.
  8. ^ a b Not an actual era name, but used in place of an era name and served a similar function.
  9. ^ The era name Shaowu was originally planned to supersede Longwu in 1647, but the Shaowu Emperor's reign ended before the era name was put into effective use.
  10. ^ After overthrowing the Jianwen Emperor in 1402, the Yongle Emperor abolished Zhu Biao's emperor status.[56] In 1644, Zhu Biao was again promoted to the status of emperor.[57]

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Brook (2010), p. 12.
  2. ^ a b c Twitchett & Mote (1998), p. 16.
  3. ^ Paludan (1998), pp. 6–7.
  4. ^ "The Emperor in the Cosmic Order". Asia for Educators (AFE), Weatherhead East Asian Institute at Columbia University.
  5. ^ Duhalde, Marcelo (8 August 2018). "Life inside the Forbidden City. Chapter 3". South China Morning Post.
  6. ^ Ch'ien (1982), p. 96.
  7. ^ Paludan (1998), pp. 177, 180.
  8. ^ "Forbidden City". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  9. ^ Atwell (2002), p. 84.
  10. ^ Melvin, Shelia (7 September 2011). "China's Reluctant Emperor". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
  11. ^ Dillon (2016), p. 444.
  12. ^ Huang (1997).
  13. ^ Huang (1997), p. 175.
  14. ^ Paludan (1998), p. 180.
  15. ^ Mote (2003), p. 98.
  16. ^ Ch'ien (1982), p. 91.
  17. ^ a b Ch'ien (1982), p. 93.
  18. ^ a b c Hucker (1966), p. 41.
  19. ^ Fan (2016), p. 97.
  20. ^ Paludan (1998), p. 187.
  21. ^ Atwell (1988), p. 639.
  22. ^ Dennerline (1985), pp. 824–825.
  23. ^ Wilkinson (2000), pp. 109–110.
  24. ^ Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, pp. 288, 290–291.
  25. ^ a b Theobald, Ulrich (23 September 2011). "Chinese History – Names of Persons and Titles of Rulers". Chinaknowledge – a universal guide for China studies. Retrieved 10 July 2013.[better source needed]
  26. ^ Wilkinson (2018), pp. 294–295.
  27. ^ Wilkinson 2018, pp. 885–886.
  28. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 381–392; Paludan 1998; Langlois 1988, pp. 107–181; Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  29. ^ a b c Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  30. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 397–404; Paludan 1998, p. 163; Chan 1988, pp. 184–204; Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  31. ^ Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 397.
  32. ^ Tsai (2002), p. 88.
  33. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 355–364; Paludan 1998, pp. 163–167; Chan 1988, pp. 205–275; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  34. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 338–340; Paludan 1998, pp. 167–169; Chan 1988, pp. 276–283; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  35. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 279–289; Paludan 1998, p. 169; Chan 1988, pp. 284–304; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  36. ^ Paludan (1998), p. 171.
  37. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 289–294; Paludan 1998, pp. 170–171; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 305–324; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  38. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976; Paludan 1998, p. 171; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 325–338; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  39. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 289–294; Paludan 1998, pp. 171–172; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 339–342; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  40. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 298–304; Paludan 1998, pp. 173–174; Mote 1988, pp. 343–369; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  41. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 375–380; Paludan 1998, p. 174; Mote 1988, pp. 343–369; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  42. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 307–315; Paludan 1998, pp. 176–178; Geiss 1988a, pp. 403–439; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  43. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 315–322; Paludan 1998, pp. 178–180; Geiss 1988b, pp. 440–510; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  44. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 365–367; Paludan 1998, p. 180; Huang 1988, pp. 511–513; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  45. ^ Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 324–338; Paludan 1998, pp. 180–183; Huang 1988, pp. 511–517; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  46. ^ Kennedy 1943a, pp. 176–177; Paludan 1998, p. 183; Atwell 1988, pp. 590–594; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
  47. ^ Kennedy 1943b, p. 190; Paludan 1998, pp. 183, 187; Atwell 1988, pp. 595–610; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 886.
  48. ^ Kennedy 1943c, pp. 191–192; Paludan 1998, p. 187; Atwell 1988, pp. 611–636; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 886.
  49. ^ Kennedy 1943d, pp. 195–196; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
  50. ^ Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Kerlouegan 2011, p. 51.
  51. ^ Kennedy 1943e, pp. 196–198; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
  52. ^ Kennedy 1943e, pp. 196–198; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
  53. ^ Kennedy 1943g, pp. 180–182; Bo 2010, p. 543; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
  54. ^ Kennedy 1943f, pp. 193–195; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
  55. ^ a b c d Zhang (1739), vol. 2.
  56. ^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. 347.
  57. ^ Qian (2016), vol. 7.
  58. ^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Qian 2016, vol. 7; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 346–347.
  59. ^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
  60. ^ a b Qian 2016, vols. 7, 26; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
  61. ^ a b c d Qian (2016), vols. 7, 26.
  62. ^ Qian 2016, vol. 26; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.

Works cited

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
  • Heer, Ph. de (1986). The Care-taker Emperor: Aspects of the Imperial Institution in Fifteenth-century China as Reflected in the Political History of the Reign of Chu Chʾi-yü. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004078983.
[edit]